Protein Sources
Sources of protein for animal feeds are many and varied, with considerable opportunities for further diversification and substitutions. More research is required on alternative sources before many of the opportunities can be exploited in practice.
Plant Protein Sources
Soybean
Soybean remains the most important and preferred source of high quality vegetable protein for animal feed manufacture. Soybean meal, which is the by-product of oil extraction, has a high crude protein content of 44 to 50 percent and a balanced amino acid composition, complementary to maize meal for feed formulation. A high level of inclusion (30-40 percent) is used in high performance monogastric diets.
A measure of success of this crop is the increase in production of 50 to 60 percent between 1985 and 2000, with most grown in the United States, Brazil and Argentina. Over half of the crop is now, however, genetically modified (GM) mainly for herbicide tolerance. The potential of soybeans for further nutritional quality enhancement was emphasized by Hard and there are prospects for considerable feed benefits, assuming acceptance of GM sources in the marketplace. Currently, Argentina and Brazil are reported to export 60 percent of their production and the USA about 16 percent. The market for non-GM soya seems to be growing and may be increasingly important in the future.
Comments by Hard and others emphasized the potential of soybeans for continuing improvement and possibly wider adaptation to different growing conditions. Chadd and colleagues mentioned the potential of forage soybeans in a European context, in locations where grain soybeans cannot (at present) be economically produced. Further development and exploitation of soybean genetics may prove the most appropriate strategy in some regions, rather than developing other alternative plant protein sources.
In the European Union soybean dominates the protein supply for animal feed and the ban on meat and bone meal has resulted in further imports, reportedly of up to 1.5 million t in 2001.
Other oil meal crops
There are many different potential oil crops in addition to soybean, each with strengths and weaknesses for protein meal supply. Local adaptation to growing conditions and local availability provide distinct advantages for feed production in many developing countries. A continuous supply of protein meal of known quality can be made available, as is the case with palm kernel cake, the by-product of oil palm production (e.g. in Malaysia and Indonesia).
According to Speedy, prospects continue to be good for future oil meal crop production. Global projections show increasing demands for vegetable oils of 2.1 percent per annum for the next 20 years, and a significant increase in demand for oil meals and cakes. Predictions of future land use suggest that the area of oil crops will increase substantially in some developing countries. Oil palm, sunflower and oilseed rape, in addition to soybeans, will dominate and provide much of the future increase. Currently, the major net exporters in the developing world are Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Brazil and Argentina, but more oil and protein meal may be retained in future years for their own domestic use.
Oilseed rape is grown extensively in temperate regions (e.g., in Canada and the European Union) and provides good protein meal. Although glucosinolates are present and the lysine content is lower than in soybean, it provides a much higher proportion of sulphur-containing amino acids (cysteine and methionine). Glucosinolates can be removed by breeding and GM types of oilseed rape have been developed. The crop is considered to have a lot of future potential, both for increasing oil content and modifying protein composition.
Chadd and colleagues also recommend more studies on the less well known and little grown oil crops such as niger and jojoba, which reportedly have a high crude protein in the extracted cake.
To what extent such crops as oil palm, coconut, sunflower, sesame, crambe or cotton (seed) can be utilized for meal inclusion in animal feeds depends to a large extent on what price the processor is able to obtain for the extracted oil. With the exception of soybean, the demand for these particular meals is markedly influenced by their vegetable oil price.
This is important for the profitability of intensive livestock enterprises such as poultry production, working on low margins. Protein-rich meal inclusion from oilseed crops currently remains the key; however, to high quality feed supply for intensive enterprise performance.
Legumes
Legumes are a traditional source of plant proteins for animal feed and their production can provide a range of benefits both on farms and for feed manufacturers. The exploitation of soybean is a classic example of successful development and use. Peas, beans and lupins are exploited as grain crops in temperate farming systems and their production for home-grown protein supply is encouraged (and supported) in the European Union to reduce dependency on imported proteins. Each has strengths and weaknesses for quality protein provision. Lupins, for example, can yield high levels of crude protein but produce grain which is often low in lysine and sulphur-containing amino acids.
Chadd and colleagues described work in the tropics and sub-tropics on alternative, better adapted protein sources and reported the benefits of chickpea, cowpea and mungbean for incorporation in poultry diets. The successful exploitation of tropical tree legumes for successful ruminant feeding, in both warmer parts of Australia and sub-Saharan Africa, was also mentioned.
The considerable potential of a wide range of leguminous plants for forage use was highlighted for both temperate and tropical agriculture. The need for much more research, however, was emphasized to provide for more successful practical exploitation. The significance of lucerne, the most widely grown forage, and red clover has been highlighted.
The value of a wide range of tropical legumes was mentioned, in particular Centrosema spp., Stylosanthes spp. and Leucaena spp., and the potential of other tree legume sources is being recognized. Leucaena leucocephala has been most widely commercialized, and can be hedge-cropped both mechanically and manually, or grazed in situ. It is adapted to a wide range of soil and climatic conditions. The presence of mimosine, a toxic amino acid, however, limits its use in non-ruminant diets.
More research is required to determine the value of many of these legumes for the animal feed industry. More agronomic studies are also required to improve performance, combined with economic analyses of the unit costs of the resultant protein. Particular attention will need to be given to protein quality, in addition to protein yield.
Further studies will also need to be undertaken with many of these potential legume sources for anti-nutritional factors and toxins. These are dealt with during processing by such practices as de-hulling, heating or solvent extraction.
Bactris gasipaesKunth
Synonymy: Guilielma gasipaes
Distribution: Amazonian Brazil, Colombia, Peru, and Central America
Common names: Peach palm, pejibaye, chonta, pupunha
Conservation status: Unknown in wild; abundant in cultivation
As with many types of fruit native to the Amazon, consumption was restricted to a relatively small geographical area because of the farming practices of the native Indians. Pupunha (Bactris gasipaes) is a multi-stemmed palm tree that can reach up to 20 meters (65 feet) in height. When the tree is an adult, 10 to 15 secondary stems develop, guaranteeing the regeneration of the plant. While not all of these stems produce fruit, they are all used to extract the delicious heart of palm. In the wild, the pupunha bears fruit in large bunches in approximately five years, but this time can be reduced by half under managed growing conditions. The male flowers fall after releasing pollen, while the female flower develops into a small red, yellow or orange fruit, measuring around 5 cm (2 inches) in diameter. The fruit is rich in vitamin A, and has a high protein and starch value. It can be eaten after being cooked in boiling water, but can also be used to produce oil and flour. Animal feed is produced with the remaining parts of the tree and fruit. In the 1970's the pupunha became a focus for research and for intensive farming in various regions of Brazil. In the state of Bahia, the first Brazilian state to commercially cultivate the fruit, the harvesting of the pupunha takes place from November to March each year. This palm is also cultivated throughout much of the rest of South and Central America, and is actually unknown in the wild.
Sources of protein for animal feeds are many and varied, with considerable opportunities for further diversification and substitutions. More research is required on alternative sources before many of the opportunities can be exploited in practice.
Plant Protein Sources
Soybean
Soybean remains the most important and preferred source of high quality vegetable protein for animal feed manufacture. Soybean meal, which is the by-product of oil extraction, has a high crude protein content of 44 to 50 percent and a balanced amino acid composition, complementary to maize meal for feed formulation. A high level of inclusion (30-40 percent) is used in high performance monogastric diets.
A measure of success of this crop is the increase in production of 50 to 60 percent between 1985 and 2000, with most grown in the United States, Brazil and Argentina. Over half of the crop is now, however, genetically modified (GM) mainly for herbicide tolerance. The potential of soybeans for further nutritional quality enhancement was emphasized by Hard and there are prospects for considerable feed benefits, assuming acceptance of GM sources in the marketplace. Currently, Argentina and Brazil are reported to export 60 percent of their production and the USA about 16 percent. The market for non-GM soya seems to be growing and may be increasingly important in the future.
Comments by Hard and others emphasized the potential of soybeans for continuing improvement and possibly wider adaptation to different growing conditions. Chadd and colleagues mentioned the potential of forage soybeans in a European context, in locations where grain soybeans cannot (at present) be economically produced. Further development and exploitation of soybean genetics may prove the most appropriate strategy in some regions, rather than developing other alternative plant protein sources.
In the European Union soybean dominates the protein supply for animal feed and the ban on meat and bone meal has resulted in further imports, reportedly of up to 1.5 million t in 2001.
Other oil meal crops
There are many different potential oil crops in addition to soybean, each with strengths and weaknesses for protein meal supply. Local adaptation to growing conditions and local availability provide distinct advantages for feed production in many developing countries. A continuous supply of protein meal of known quality can be made available, as is the case with palm kernel cake, the by-product of oil palm production (e.g. in Malaysia and Indonesia).
According to Speedy, prospects continue to be good for future oil meal crop production. Global projections show increasing demands for vegetable oils of 2.1 percent per annum for the next 20 years, and a significant increase in demand for oil meals and cakes. Predictions of future land use suggest that the area of oil crops will increase substantially in some developing countries. Oil palm, sunflower and oilseed rape, in addition to soybeans, will dominate and provide much of the future increase. Currently, the major net exporters in the developing world are Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Brazil and Argentina, but more oil and protein meal may be retained in future years for their own domestic use.
Oilseed rape is grown extensively in temperate regions (e.g., in Canada and the European Union) and provides good protein meal. Although glucosinolates are present and the lysine content is lower than in soybean, it provides a much higher proportion of sulphur-containing amino acids (cysteine and methionine). Glucosinolates can be removed by breeding and GM types of oilseed rape have been developed. The crop is considered to have a lot of future potential, both for increasing oil content and modifying protein composition.
Chadd and colleagues also recommend more studies on the less well known and little grown oil crops such as niger and jojoba, which reportedly have a high crude protein in the extracted cake.
To what extent such crops as oil palm, coconut, sunflower, sesame, crambe or cotton (seed) can be utilized for meal inclusion in animal feeds depends to a large extent on what price the processor is able to obtain for the extracted oil. With the exception of soybean, the demand for these particular meals is markedly influenced by their vegetable oil price.
This is important for the profitability of intensive livestock enterprises such as poultry production, working on low margins. Protein-rich meal inclusion from oilseed crops currently remains the key; however, to high quality feed supply for intensive enterprise performance.
Legumes
Legumes are a traditional source of plant proteins for animal feed and their production can provide a range of benefits both on farms and for feed manufacturers. The exploitation of soybean is a classic example of successful development and use. Peas, beans and lupins are exploited as grain crops in temperate farming systems and their production for home-grown protein supply is encouraged (and supported) in the European Union to reduce dependency on imported proteins. Each has strengths and weaknesses for quality protein provision. Lupins, for example, can yield high levels of crude protein but produce grain which is often low in lysine and sulphur-containing amino acids.
Chadd and colleagues described work in the tropics and sub-tropics on alternative, better adapted protein sources and reported the benefits of chickpea, cowpea and mungbean for incorporation in poultry diets. The successful exploitation of tropical tree legumes for successful ruminant feeding, in both warmer parts of Australia and sub-Saharan Africa, was also mentioned.
The considerable potential of a wide range of leguminous plants for forage use was highlighted for both temperate and tropical agriculture. The need for much more research, however, was emphasized to provide for more successful practical exploitation. The significance of lucerne, the most widely grown forage, and red clover has been highlighted.
The value of a wide range of tropical legumes was mentioned, in particular Centrosema spp., Stylosanthes spp. and Leucaena spp., and the potential of other tree legume sources is being recognized. Leucaena leucocephala has been most widely commercialized, and can be hedge-cropped both mechanically and manually, or grazed in situ. It is adapted to a wide range of soil and climatic conditions. The presence of mimosine, a toxic amino acid, however, limits its use in non-ruminant diets.
More research is required to determine the value of many of these legumes for the animal feed industry. More agronomic studies are also required to improve performance, combined with economic analyses of the unit costs of the resultant protein. Particular attention will need to be given to protein quality, in addition to protein yield.
Further studies will also need to be undertaken with many of these potential legume sources for anti-nutritional factors and toxins. These are dealt with during processing by such practices as de-hulling, heating or solvent extraction.
Bactris gasipaesKunth
Synonymy: Guilielma gasipaes
Distribution: Amazonian Brazil, Colombia, Peru, and Central America
Common names: Peach palm, pejibaye, chonta, pupunha
Conservation status: Unknown in wild; abundant in cultivation
As with many types of fruit native to the Amazon, consumption was restricted to a relatively small geographical area because of the farming practices of the native Indians. Pupunha (Bactris gasipaes) is a multi-stemmed palm tree that can reach up to 20 meters (65 feet) in height. When the tree is an adult, 10 to 15 secondary stems develop, guaranteeing the regeneration of the plant. While not all of these stems produce fruit, they are all used to extract the delicious heart of palm. In the wild, the pupunha bears fruit in large bunches in approximately five years, but this time can be reduced by half under managed growing conditions. The male flowers fall after releasing pollen, while the female flower develops into a small red, yellow or orange fruit, measuring around 5 cm (2 inches) in diameter. The fruit is rich in vitamin A, and has a high protein and starch value. It can be eaten after being cooked in boiling water, but can also be used to produce oil and flour. Animal feed is produced with the remaining parts of the tree and fruit. In the 1970's the pupunha became a focus for research and for intensive farming in various regions of Brazil. In the state of Bahia, the first Brazilian state to commercially cultivate the fruit, the harvesting of the pupunha takes place from November to March each year. This palm is also cultivated throughout much of the rest of South and Central America, and is actually unknown in the wild.
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