Oil Palm

 Oil Palm - Elaeis guineensis

TAXONOMY

The African oil palm, Elaeis guineensis Jacq., is placed in the Arecaceae family along with coconut and date palms. Cultivars There are three naturally occurring forms of the oil palm fruit, termed dura, tenera, and pisifera. Most cultivars are the tenera form which produces fruit with higher oil content.

ORIGIN, HISTORY OF CULTIVATION

The African oil palm is native to tropical Africa, from Sierra Leone in the west through the Democratic Republic of Congo in the east. It was domesticated in its native range, probably in Nigeria, and moved throughout tropical Africa by humans who practiced shifting agriculture at least 5000 years ago. European explorers discovered the palm in the late 1400's, and distributed it throughout the world during the slave trade period. In the early 1800s, the slave trade ended but British began trading with west Africans in ivory, lumber, and palm oil. The oil palm was introduced to the Americas hundreds of years ago, where it became naturalized and associated with slave plantations, but did not become and industry of its own until the 1960s. The first plantations were established on Sumatra in 1911, and in 1917 in Malaysia. Oil palm plantations were established in tropical America and west Africa about this time, and in 2003, palm oil production equaled that of soybean, which had been the number one oil crop for many years.

PRODUCTION

World (2004 FAO) - 153,578,600 MT or 338 billion pounds. This is about twice the level of production of any other fruit crop, making oil palm by far the world's number one fruit crop. Oil palm is produced in 42 countries worldwide on about 27 million acres. Average yields are 10,000 lbs/acre, and per acre yield of oil from African oil palm is more than 4-fold that of any other oil crop, which has contributed to the vast expansion of the industry over the last few decades.

Top 10 Countries(% of world production)

1. Malaysia (44%)
6. Cote d'Ivoire (1%)
2. Indonesia (36%)
7. Ecuador (1%)
3. Nigeria (6%)
8. Cameroon (1%)
4. Thailand (3%)
9. Congo (1%)
5. Colombia (2%)
10. Ghana (1%)United States

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION

Plant Oil palm can reach 60-80 ft in height in nature, but is rarely more than 20 or 30 ft in cultivation. Leaf bases are persistent for years, and prominent leaf scars are arranged spirally on the trunk of mature palms where bases have fallen. Leaves are up to 25 ft in length, with leaflets numbering 200-300 per leaf, about 3-4 ft long and 1.5 - 2.0" wide, with entire margins. Leaflets cover the distal 2/3 of the leaf, and the lower 1/3 is spined with spines increasing in length acropetally. Flowers Oil palms are monoecious, producing male and female inflorescences in leaf axils. The inflorescence of both sexes is a compound spadix with 100-200 branches, initially enclosed in a spathe or bract that splits 2 weeks prior to anthesis.

Male (left) and female (right) inflorescences of oil palm. Both are a compound spadix. Note the beetle pollinators foraging on the male flowers at the tips of the spadix branches.
Pollination Oil palms are primarily insect pollinated by various insects: in Africa, weevils (Elaeidobius spp), in Latin America, Mystrops costaricensis and Elaeidobius spp.Fruit As in many palms, fruits are drupes. The mesocarp and endocarp vary in thickness, with dura types having thick endocarps and less mesocarp, and tenera types the opposite. The exocarp color is green changing to orange at maturity in virescens types, and orange with brown or black cheek colors in the nigrescens types.

Climate - hot, wet tropical lowlands, major production regions receive at least 6 ft of rain per year, evenly distributed, with at least 4" per month if a short dry season exists; optimal temperatures are in the 80s-90s °F, with temperatures below 75°F slowing growth; 5-7 hr of direct sunlight per day is beneficial.Propagation Oil palm is propagated by seed, using F1 hybrid seed from controlled crosses that produce tenera types (dura x pisifera). Seed is produced by companies specializing in oil palm breeding.


An oil palm planting where older trees have been killed to make way for younger, smaller trees (left). Pregerminated oil palm seeds are sold by companies that specialize in hybrid seed production (right).Rootstocks - NonePlanting Design, Training, PruningOptimal plant density is 58 trees/acre with triangular patterns about 30 ft apart. During the first 3 years, little or no fruit is obtained and plantations are often intercropped with staple crops.Pruning and Training - none, old leaves are pruned off to facilitate access to the bunch at harvest. When palms reach heights of 20-30 ft, they become difficult to harvest, and are often injected with an herbicide to kill them or bulldozed down. New trees are planted among the dead and rotting trunks.

HARVEST, POSTHARVEST HANDLING

Maturity As fruit ripen, they change from black (or green in virescens types) to orange, but have varying degrees of black cheek color depending on light exposure and cultivar. However, fruit abscission is the best index of bunch ripeness. Harvest Method Fruit bunches are harvested using chisels or hooked knives attached to long poles. Each tree must be visited every 10-15 days as bunches ripen throughout the year.Postharvest Handling Oil extraction is a complex process, carried out by large mills that may process up to 60 tons of fruit per hour, or by small scale mills in rural villages that produce only about 1 ton of oil in an 8 hour shift.

 

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FFB Processing

For mature plantations not exceeding 40 ha, a hand-operated hydraulic press will be enough for extraction of oil. In the case of large-scale plantations, the hydraulic press will not be economical and as such, mechanically driven oil mills have to be established. The fruit bunches brought to the factory are first quartered by means of a chisel. They are then sterilized in steam or boiling water for 30-60 minutes. The objective of this process is to inactivate the fat splitting enzymes, which are present in the fruit, which may raise the free fatty acid content of the oil and also to soften the fruits for easy pounding. The sterilized fruits are stripped off from the bunch and then pounded. The pounded fruit mass is then reheated and squeezed using a hydraulic press. It is then boiled in a clarification drum where the sludge will deposit and pure oil float over the water. The oil is then drained out.

DURA

PASIFERA

TENERA

 

 

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Oil Palm Physiology

Palm oils consist mainly of glycerides and, like other oils in their crude form, small and variable portions of non-glyceride components as well. In order to render the oils to an edible form, some of these non-glycerides need to be either removed or reduced to acceptable levels.
In term of solubility study – glycerides are of two broad types: oil insoluble and oil soluble. The insoluble impurities consisting of fruit fibres, nut shells and free moisture mainly, are readily removed. The oil soluble non-glycerides which include free fatty acids, phospholipids, trace metals, carotenoids, tocopherols or tocotrienols, oxidation products and sterols are more difficult to remove and thus, the oil needs to undergo various stages of refining.
Not all of the above non-glyceride components are undesirable. The tocopherols and tocotrienols not only help to protect the oil from oxidation, which is detrimental to flavour and keep ability of the finished oil, but also have nutritional attributes, a- and b-carotene, the major constituents of carotenoids, are precursors of vitamin A. The other impurities generally are detrimental to the oil’s flavour, odour, colour and keep ability and thus influence the oil’s usefulness.
The aim of refining is therefore to convert the crude oil to quality edible oil by removing objectionable impurities to the desired levels in the most efficient manner. This also means that, where possible, losses in the desirable component are kept minimal

The raw material which is used by physical plant is crude palm oil (CPO) from the CPO storage tank. CPO is feed at the flow rate about 35-60 tons/hour. The initial temperature of CPO is at 40 – 60°C. The feed is pumped through the heat recovery system, that is plate heat exchanger to increase the temperature around 60 – 90°C.
After that, there is about 20% of the CPO feed to into the slurry and mix with the bleaching earth (6 – 12kg/ton CPO) to form slurry (CPO + Bleaching earth). The agitator inside the slurry tank will mixed the CPO and bleaching earth completely. Then, the slurry will go into the bleacher.
At the same time, another 80% of the CPO is pumped through another plate heat exchanger (PHE) and steam heater to increase the CPO temperature to 90 – 130°C (it is a desired temperature for the reaction between CPO and phosphoric acid). Then, the CPO feed is pumped to static mixers and the phosphoric acid is dosed at 0.35 – 0.45 kg/ton. Inside there, the intensive mixing is carried out with the crude oil for precipitation up the gums. The precipitation of gums will ease the later filtration process, avoid the scale formation in deodorizer and heating surface. The degumming CPO then will go into bleacher.
In the bleacher, there are 20% slurry and 80% degummed CPO will mix together and the bleaching process occur. The practice of bleaching involves the addition of bleaching earth to remove any undesirable impurities (all pigments, trace metals, oxidation products) from CPO and this improves the initial taste, final flavor and oxidative stability of product. It also helps to overcome problems in subsequent processing by adsorption of soap traces, pro-oxidant metal ions, decomposes peroxides, colour reduction, and adsorbs other minor impurities. The temperature inside the bleacher must be around 100°C – 130°C to get the optimum bleaching process for 30 minutes of bleaching period. The low pressure steam is purged into bleacher to agitate the concentrated slurry for a better bleaching condition.
The slurry containing the oil and bleaching earth is then passed through the Niagara filter to give a clean, free from bleaching earth particles oil. The temperature must be maintain at around 80 – 120°C for good filtration process. In the Niagara filter, the slurry passes through the filter leaves and the bleaching earth is trapped on the filter leaves. Actually, the bleaching earth must be clear from Niagara filter after45minutes in operation to get a good filtration. Bleached palm oil (BPO) from Niagara filter is then pumped into buffer tank as a temporary storage before further processing.
Usually, a second check filter, trap filter is used in series with the Niagara filter to double ensure that no bleaching earth slips occur. The presence of bleaching earth fouls deodorizer, reduces the oxidative stability of the product oil and acts as a catalyst for dimerizaition and polymerization activities. So, the “blue test” is carried out for each batch of filtration to ensure the perfect filtration process. This test indicates whether any leaking is occurring in Niagara filter or trap filter. Hence, any corrective actions can be taken intermediately.
The BPO comes out from the filter and passes through another series of heat recovery system, Schmidt plate heat exchanger and spiral (thermal oil: 250 – 305°C) heat exchanger to heat up the BPO from 80 – 120°C until 210 – 250°C.
The hot BPO from spiral heat exchanger then proceeds to the next stage where the free fatty acid content and the color are further reduced and more important, it is deodorized to produce a product which is stable and bland in flavor.
In the pre-stripping and deodorizing column, deacidification and deodorization process happen concurently. Deodorization is a high temperature, high vacuum and steam distillation process. A deodorizer operates in the following manner: (1) dearates the oil, (2) heat up the oil, (3) steam strips the oil and (4)cools the oil before it leaves the system. All materials if contact are stainless steel.
In the column, the oil is generally heated to approximately 240 – 280°C under vacuum. A vacuum of less than 10 torr is usually maintained by the use of ejectors and boosters. Heat bleaching of the oil occurs at this temperature through the thermal destruction of the carotenoid pigments. The use of direct steam ensures readily removal of residue free fatty acids, aldehydes and ketones which are responsible for unacceptable odor and flavors. The lower molecular weight of vaporized fatty acids rises up the column and pulls out by the vacuum system. The fatty acid vapor leaving the deodorizer are condensed and collected in the fatty acid condenser as fatty acid. The fatty acids then is cooled in the fatty acid cooler and discharged to the fatty acid storage tank with temperature around 60 – 80°C as palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD), a by-product from refinery process.
The bottom product of the pre-stripper and deodorizer is Refined, Bleached, Deodorized Palm Oil (RBDPO). The hot RBDPO (250 – 280°C) is pumped through Schmidt PHE to transfer its heat to incoming BPO with lower temperature. Then, it passes through another trap filters to have the final oil polishing (120 – 140°C) to prevent the earth traces from reaching the product tank. After that, the RBDPO will pass through the RBDPO cooler and plate heat exchanger to transfer the heat to the CPO feed. The RBDPO then is pumped to the storage with temperature 50 – 80°C.

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Seeds of Oil Palm

MODERN OIL PALM CULTIVATION

A modern oil palm plantation needs a grower who has learned how to cultivate oil palms.
Growing selected oil palms is not just a matter of picking the fruit; it is a modern crop.The grower must learn how to do his work well.The grower should ask for advice, so that he learns to do better and better.
The grower must think about his work and plan it, so that he can always do his work at the right time.Selected oil palms give the grower much more work than the natural trees, but they yield much more.
An oil palm grower is a modern farmer.With the money he earns he can buy for his family what they need, and he can modernize his farm.

BEFORE STARTING THINK THINGS OVER CAREFULLY

An oil palm begins to produce 3 or 4 years after it has been planted.During that time the grower must spend money and work hard, without harvesting any fruit or earning any money.
To make a modern oil palm plantation takes money.
Most often you will have to pay workmen for clearing the site of the plantation and removing tree stumps.
Then you must buy seedlings and fertilizers.Unless you apply fertilizers to the oil palms when they are still young, they will not grow well and you will have to wait a longer time before you can begin to harvest.
You may also have to pay workers to help you look after the young plantation. Weeds must not be allowed to get in the way of the oil palms, and the trees must be protected from damage by rats and agoutis.
All this work takes a lot of time, and this means that you may not have enough time to look after large fields of food crops.You may have to buy food for your family.Before you start an oil palm plantation, you must calculate carefully whether you will be able to pay all these expenses.
To grow oil palms takes a lot of work.
Before planting your oil palms, you have to clear the forest and remove the tree stumps.Then it takes a lot of time to sow the cover crop, dig holes in the plantation, take the seedlings out of the nursery, carry them to the plantation and plant them.
All this work needs to be carefully done; you must take your time.Never hurry if you want to be successful with your plantation.
Once the oil palms are planted, you must put wire netting around the young trees, you must spread fertilizer and keep watch over the plantation.Young oil palms need a lot of care. It is better to make a smaller plantation, but look after it carefully.
Once the oil palms have begun to produce, the fruit must be harvested at the right moment.If you cannot pick the fruit at the right moment, it becomes too ripe, many clusters will drop and the quality of the fruit will be less good.
4. To grow oil palms takes much time and much care.
Do not try to cultivate too large an area, or the work will be badly done.It is better to cultivate a small plantation and to do the work well.A small plantation that is well looked after can yield more than a large plantation that is badly looked after.

LIFE OF THE OIL PALM

The oil palm may have a very long life.
It is important to know about the life of the oil palm.If you know all about the life of the oil palm, you will understand better how to cultivate them.If you do not take care of the seeds, they will germinate only after several years.At the research stations, the seeds are kept in a room where it is always very hot.This makes the seeds germinate sooner, after 90 to 100 days.
Each seed germinated is planted in a small plastic container.A new leaf grows every month.The young seedling stays in the container for 4 to 5 months.When you see a left with two points (bifid leaf) coming up, transplant the seedling out into the nursery.
The seedling stays in the nursery for 1 year. When it has about 15 green leaves, it is planted in the palm grove.The seedling is therefore 16 to 18 months old when it is ready to be planted in the palm grove.
When the young oil palm has been planted in the palm grove, it produces male flowers.The flowers form at the base of each leaf.For several months, the oil palm produces only male flowers.After that, for several months, it produces only female flowers.
The male flowers are grouped in spikes.The female flowers form other spikes.The male flowers fertilize the female flowers.Fertilized female flowers turn into a cluster of fruit.
The oil palm has no branches.
It has a trunk and leaves. The trunk, sometimes called a stipe, is the stem of the palm.At the tip of the stem there is one bud - one only:This is the growing point, which makes the oil palm live and grow.
If the growing point dies, the tree dies as well.
The growing point of the adult oil palm produces 20 to 25 leaves every year.It is most important that the growing point should produce many leaves, because there will be a flower at the base of each leaf.If there are many leaves, there will be many flowers. And if there are many flowers, there will be many clusters of fruit.
The oil palm grows well and produces a lot in regions where it is very hot, where the sun is very strong, and where it rains a great deal.

THE FRUITS OF THE OIL PALM YIELD OIL

The clusters consist of spikelets.
The spikelets contain the fruit.Before getting the oil out of the fruit, the fruit must be separated from the spikelets.
The fruits of the oil palm consist of the following parts:Pulp: the pulp is yellow; when the pulp is crushed it yields palm oil.Seed: inside the shell of the seed is the kernel; when the kernel is crushed, it yields palm kernel oil.The kernel also contains the germ.
The fruits of all oil palms are not the same.
They are not all of the same size.
The pulp is not equally thick in all of them.
The shell is not equally thick.
Some kernels have no shell at all.
There are different varieties of oil palm:
dura palms have kernels with a thick shell;
pisifera palms have kernels with no shell;
tenera palms have kernels with a thin shell.
When oil palms bear many and large fruit clusters, they yield a lot of oil.
But to get a lot of oil, each fruit must also contain a lot of pulp, a shell that is not very thick, and a big kernel.
Research stations have developed varieties of oil palm which produce many large clusters with fruits that have a lot of pulp, a thin shell and a big kernel.These are selected oil palms.
In order to get a lot of oil, the female flowers of a dura palm are fertilized with the pollen from a pisifera palm.Once they are fertilized, the female flowers turn into fruits.These fruits are of the tenera variety.
The fruits of the tenera palm have a lot of pulp, a thin shell and a big kernel.

WHY CULTIVATE OIL PALMS?

In traditional farming, nobody cultivates oil palms.
People simply pick the clusters of fruit from the oil palms that grow in the forest.
But these oil palms produce little.The oil is extracted by traditional methods, and a lot of oil is left in the pulp and the kernel.But nowadays oil palms are grown on modem plantations.These contain selected oil palms with big yields.The clusters of fruit are sold to mills which extract all the oil from the pulp and the kernels.
These oil palm plantations bring in money
for the growers who sell the fruit,
for the workers who work in the mills,
for the government which can sell the oil to foreign countries.
The growers can also earn money by raising beef cattle.Beef cattle can be fed with the green fodder from the cover crop grown in the palm groves.The grower can also feed his cattle with palm-kernel oil cake, that is, what is left over after extraction of the palm kernel oil.Palm-kernel oil cake is a protein-rich food.

WHERE TO CULTIVATE OIL PALMS

Oil palms are cultivated in the regions where they grow well and where there are oil mills.
To repary the grower the oil palm needs a region:
Where it is hot all the year roundThe oil palm grows well where it is hot all the year round: between 25 and 28 degrees C.If the temperature drops, the oil palm produces fewer leaves and is more often attacked by diseases. It therefore yields less.A hot temperature enables the oil palm to make many leaves and to produce many clusters of fruit.
A lot of sunshineWhere there is a lot of sunshine, there will be strong photosynthesis, provided the oil palm is in soil which gives it water and mineral salts.The leaves grow large, the fruit ripens well, and there is more oil in the fruits.
Plentiful rainIf it does not rain much, or if it does not rain for several months, the leaves do not grow well.If there are few new leaves, there are few flowers and few clusters of fruit.There is less yield.
Where the soil is flat, deep, permeable and rich.
The oil palm needs a flat soil.If the soil is not flat, transport is difficult and costs a lot.Erosion is severe; the water carries away the earth.
The oil palm needs a deep soil.The roots of the oil palm cannot develop il they meet a hard layer.They cannot take up water and mineral salts that are deep down.If the oil palm does not have enough water, yields are low.
The oil palm needs a permeable soil.The oil palm does not grow well if water remains around its roots for too long.
The oil palm needs a rich soil.In order to produce many large clusters of fruit, the oil palm needs a lot of mineral salts.If the soil is poor, mineral salts can be added by applying fertilizers.
Where there are oil mills.
With traditional methods, a lot of oil is left in the pulp and the kernels.The machines of the oil mills extract all the oil contained in the pulp and the kernels.
Selected oil palms produce many clusters of fruit.To get all the oil out of these clusters yourself, you would have to spend a lot of time.Before planting selected oil palms, make sure you can sell the fruit clusters to a mill.
Where business companies or extension services can give the grower advice.
It takes much money and work to make an oil palm plantation.The grower must use modern methods in order to pay for his expenses and earn money. He will need advice on:

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Palm Nursery

Nursery practices

The fruits are separated from the bunch and seeds are extracted by scraping off the exocarp and mesocarp with a knife, or by retting in water. The seeds are then dried by spreading them on concrete or wooden floors under shade for two days. Such seeds can be stored for 3-9 months at about 27 ºC without much reduction in viability.Seeds are soaked in water for five days, changing the water daily. Thereafter, the seeds are spread out to dry for 24 hours. The dried seeds are put in polythene bags and placed in germinator maintained at a temperature of 40 ºC. After 80 days, the seeds are removed from polythene bags, soaked in water for 5 days changing the water daily and dried in the shade for two hours. The seeds are then put back into bags and kept in a cool place in order to maintain the moisture content. Germination commences in about 10-12 days. The percentage of germination obtainable by this method is 90-95.

Raising nursery

Polybags (preferably black) of 400-500 gauge measuring 40 x 35 cm are used. The bags are filled with topsoil and compost and are arranged at a spacing of 45 x 45 cm and one sprouted seed is dibbled per bag. A good mulching during summer is desirable. Watering the seedlings weekly thrice is recommended. A fertilizer mixture containing 15 g N, 15 g P2O5 and 6 g K2O at the rate of 8 g in five litres of water for 100 seedlings may be applied when the seedlings are two month and eight month old.

LAYOUT OF PATHS AND NURSERY BEDS

Nursery bed is the name for the strip of soil where the oil palm seedlings are planted.It is best to make the nursery on flat ground.But, if the ground slopes, the beds must lie across the slope.The beds should be 45 metres long and 3.5 metres wide.The soil of the beds should be well worked to make it quite flat.After that, apply a dressing of fertilizer. For instance, at La Mé, Ivory Coast, 250 kilogrammes of 10:10:20 fertilizer are applied per hectare.

PUTTING UP SHELTERS



In certain regions shelter has to be put up over the nursery.This protects the young seedlings from a disease called blast.
These shelters are made with posts and bamboo sticks.To make the shelters more solid, put two posts together.The posts should be 2.5 metres high. The bamboo sticks are tied to the posts with lianas.

Finally, put palm fronds over the bamboo sticks.In Benin, shade for the young oil palms is provided by planting castor-oil plants in the nursery.
If you make a shelter, you need not mulch, but you must hoe very often.Get rid of all the weeds, and always keep the soil loose.

Three months after transplanting, if the seedlings have grown well, apply monthly to each plant 15 to 20 grammes of a mixture of ammonium sulfate and potassium chloride.Spread the fertilizer mixture in a ring 10 centimetres from the seedling and water.Hoe to work the fertilizer into the ground.

The seedlings stay in the nursery for about 1 year.You must plan, therefore, to make the nursery about 1 year before you want to plant your palm grove.

ABNORMAL PLANTS (3 Month In Nursery Palm Oil)

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Penyakit Pada Peringkat Semaian

Tiga Peringkat Pemilihan

1. Peringkat awal ialah semasa anak benih hendak dialih dari polibeg kecil ke polibeg besar atau semasa anak benih berumur tiga bulan dari tarikh semai di tapak semaian satu peringkat. Biasanya 5%-10% anak benih tidak terpilih pada peringkat ini.
2. Peringkat kedua ialah selepas daun terbuka untuk membentuk pinat. Biasanya 5%-10% anak benih tidak terpilih pada peringkat ini. Untuk mendapatkan anak benih yang bermutu, adalah disarankan tidak menghadkan jumlah peratus penakaian.
3. Peringkat ketiga ialah sebelum anak benih ditanam di ladang iaitu setelah anak benih berumur 12 bulan dari tarikh semai. Anak benih yang tidak dipilih pada peringkat ini biasanya tidak melebihi 5%. Anak benih yang tidak terpilih hendaklah dimusnahkan.

Perosak Pada Peringkat Semaian

Kaedah Kawalan Rumpai

Racun Rumpai Yang Disyorkan Untuk Kawalan Rumpai Di Tapak Semaian Sawit

1. Bagi mengawal rumpai jenis rumput seperti E. zindica (rumput sambau) dengan menggunakan gliposat pada kadar 1.5liter/450liter air (jangan disiram selama satu hari selepas semburan. Titis semburan boleh merosakkan pucuk dan pelepah baru).
2. Bagi mengawal rumpai jenis rumput seperti E. indica (rumput sambau) don P.Conjugatum (rumput kerbau) sahaja : fluzifop-butyl pada kadar 1.5 liter/450 liter air.
3. Bagi mengawal rumpai berdaun lebar atau rumput + rumpai berdaun lebar : glufosinat-ammonium pada kadar 3.5 liter/450 liter air.
4. Bagi mengawal rumpai A.Gangetica (akar ruas-ruas), B.Iatifolia (rumput setawar) dan A.Conyzoides (rumput tahi ayam) : metsulfuron-metil pada kadar 70 gram/450 liter air.

Racun Rumpai Untuk Kawalan Rumpai Di Sekeliling Pangkal Pokok Kelapa Sawit Matang Dan Lorong Tuaian Buah Sawit

Racun Rumpai Untuk Kawalan Rumpai Di Kawasan Tanaman Sawit Muda

Racun Rumpai Untuk Kawalan Rumpai Terpilih

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Oil Palm Planting

Oil palm is planted in the main field in triangular system at spacing of 9 m accommodating 140 palms per ha. Planting is preferably done at the onset of monsoon during May-June. The polythene bag is torn open and the entire ball of earth is buried in the pit (50 x 50 x 50 cm) and levelled. Leaf pruning
Dead and diseased leaves and all inflorescences should be cut off regularly up to three years after planting. When the palms are yielding, judicious pruning to retain about 40 leaves on the crown is advocated. It is necessary to remove some of the leaves while harvesting. In such cases, care should be taken to avoid over pruning. In addition, all dead and excess leaves should be cut off and crown cleaned at least once in a year, usually during the dry season.

Pollination

Oil palm is a cross-pollinated crop. Assisted pollination is done to ensure fertilization of all female flowers. However, this is not necessary if the pollination weevil Elaedobius kamerunicus is introduced in the plantation. They congregate and multiply on male inflorescence during flower opening. The weevils also visit the female flowers and pollinate them effectively.

 

 

 

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Insect and Control

Introduction

The bagworm, Oiketicus kirbyi is a polyphagous insect feeding on several crops: Musaceae (Musa spp.), cacao (Theobroma cacao L.), oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacquin), peach palm (Bactris gasipaes Kunth), coconut (Cocos nucifera L.), citrus (Citrus spp.), teek (Tectona grandis L.), eucaliptus (Eucalyptus spp.), Eryobothria japónica, Terminalia catappa L) and many more.
The insect became a serious problem in some commercial banana plantations on Costa Rica's Atlantic coast during the period 1962-1964. The start of the problem was associated with the irrational use of broad-spectrum, long-residuality insecticides such as Dieldrin, originally used to control an aphid (Lara 1970).
O. kirbyi was present in oil palm in Central America but was of no concern (Chinchilla 1989), until an outbreak was observed in an oil palm plantation in Puerto Armuelles, Panama, in 1990. The outbreak appeared to originate in a nearby plantain plantation. Early the following year, an outbreak occurred in another nearby oil palm plantation, this time located in Costa Rica. Initially, the insect was confined to two harvesting lots, but the area affected rapidly increased to comprise several hundred hectares. Several outbreaks fallowed during which control was attempted through the use of Bacillus thuringiensis (generally Dipel: 0.8 to 1.5 l/ha). From 1996 onwards, the population of the pest declined, apparently controlled by its numerous natural enemies. In September of 1998, a new outbreak occurred in a small area (less than 100 ha) but did not spread. From that moment on, the population of this pest has been very low.
O. kirbyi has also caused problems in oil palm in other countries. In Colombia, the pest was observed in El Cesar during 1973 and 1985, when it caused three defoliations in Palmeras de la Costa S.A (up to 353 larvae /leaf) (Villanueva and Avila 1987). It also caused damage in the Cauca Valley, in about 150 ha of plantains in 1975-1976 (García 1987).
This review summarizes part of the knowledge obtained on O. kirbyi originating in tropical America, particularly that learned in Costa Rica during outbreaks in the early nineties.

The Psychidae family

The larvae of the Psychidae family are hypognathous, measure between 8 and 50 mm, and build protective bags made from silk and fragments of plant tissue. They are cylindrical, with well-developed thoracic legs and four pairs of pseudo-legs in the abdomen and a pair at the anal extreme.
Pupation occurs within the bag; the final larval stage attaches the bag to the stratum and pupates up side down. In some more evolved genera, females do not abandon the bag, except after laying the eggs, when they drop to die on the ground. Depending on species, 200- 13 000 eggs remain within the bag. The larval stage is fairly long, but adult life is ephemeral. Sexual dimorphism is marked: adult females are neotenic with larval appearance and remain inside the bag. Males are free living moths (Stehr 1987).
There are about 600 species in the family; 500 are Old World species and 26 are found in Canada and the US. The genus Oiketicus is represented by three species in tropical America. O. kirbyi is found in lowlands from Brazil to Mexico and in the Caribbean islands.

Integrated pest management

The integrated management of the pest is based on sampling leaf 17 looking for larvae (healthy, parasitized, diseased…) and predators. Natural enemies are also looked for on the associated flora.
Chemical control. Aerial applications of broad-spectrum, long-residuality insecticides in both bananas and oil palm in the past disrupted natural control. The protection afforded the larva by its bag and its ability to fast make this pest difficult to control with most insecticides. Trunk injection of monocrotophos (14-18 cc/palm) has been used with success (up to 98% larval mortality in two weeks) in some occasions. However, the use of this technique is laborious, costly and not risk-free in terms of its affects on the natural enemies of the pest.
Results obtained with the use of Bacillus thuringiensis (2-3 kg/ha:Thuricide, Dipel…) have been variable (up to 70 % larval mortality), depending on several factors, including climatic conditions. Normally, effective control requires at least two applications of the product spaced 3-4 weeks. Chitin inhibitors (triflumuron: 0.45- 0.75 g a.i./ha) and the nereistoxin (Padan) have also been used with relative success.
Cultural control. Given that larvae tend to concentrate toward the tip of leaves, they can be collected manually on young palms. Cutting the tips of leaves is not a good idea since defoliation can be greater than that caused by the larvae. Manual removal of larvae can be costly and most of bags taken could be males, since many females tend to position themselves toward the tips of the youngest taller leaves where a normal person can not reach them.
Weed control should be selective (or suspended) during an outbreak of this or any other defoliator: patches or bands of known beneficial plants can be left to provide refuge and food to parasitoids and predators. Nurseries of these plants can be prepared and planted in areas where they can be protected without interfering with normal agronomic practices (Table 6).
Biological control. Parasitized larvae can be collected and placed in containers that allow the adult parasitoids to leave. However, protecting and planting those plants that harbor these natural enemies of the pest is more effective.
Pheromones. The main blend of pheromones produced by the female to attract males has been identified and can be used to monitor male population or even in mating disruption. Light traps do not attract many males, and no trap with food will work since adult males do not feed.

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Oil Palm Fertilizer

The Non-judicious use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides is primarily attributed to the lack of knowledge about the alternatives and their source. This module provides the farmer with the information of the licensed retail outlets and fertilizers. Farmers and extension personals can use this effectively to make knowledgeable decision in using/recommending better options. Users can select the availability of fertilizer based on location items etc clicking on corresponding buttons.

P and Mg Fertilizer consumption trend in MalaysiaIt can be observed that Malaysian fertilizer consumption has steadily increased. This can be attributed to thechanges in the Malaysian agricultural scenario. As more rubber areas were replanted with oil palm, thefertilizer requirement was also increased as oil palm requires more nutrients than rubber. In addition, newland were planted mainly with oil palm.Fertilizer Selection and Evaluation by Large Plantation OrganizationsOil palm is the main crop cultivated by the large plantation organizations. Of the inputs, fertilizers accountsfor about 24 % of the total agricultural cost of fresh fruit bunch (FFB) production (Tan, 1988; Nazeeb, 1997).However, with the significant depreciation of the Malaysian Ringgit against the US Dollar since 1997, thecost of fertilizer input has increased further. Hence, the choice and use of fertilizer has become moreimportant, not only in terms of costs of production, but also the likely responses and returns from theirapplications in the field.From its early days, the plantation industry has recognised the importance of good palm nutrition. It hasinvested greatly in research into nutrient requirements of the oil palm and has adopted a multi-disciplinaryapproach to assessing fertilizer needs of the crop including intensive studies on palm nutrition (nutrientbalance and cycling, nutrient diagnosis techniques) and physiology, soils and soil fertility, and interactionswith management practices. Many field trials have also been laid down over the past 40 years to establishresponse curves to the various nutrients on different soils and sites, to evaluate the different nutrient sourcesand fertilizers, timing and methods of fertilizer application.Most agronomists are now applying site-specific fertilizer application practices to maximize returns fromfertilizer usage and to reduce any potential environmental problems. Considerable field data e.g. soil typesand fertility, palm growth and yields are collected from each manuring block, usually between 20 to 50hectares. The leaf nutrient levels are regularly checked as well for early detection of any possibledeficiencies.Each block in the estate is inspected annually to assess the nutrient requirements and fertilizerrecommendations i.e. fertilizer types, rates and schedules drawn up for application. The choice of fertilizersare determined by the fertilizer types available and their physical and chemical properties, their prices inMalaysian Fertilizer Consumption Trend 1986 - 1999Phosphorus and Magnesium.

Mgrelation to the expected available nutrients, rate and method of application adopted (manually by hand,mechanical spreader, holing or aerial application), and age of palms based on the numerous fertilizer trialson oil palm to evaluate their efficacy and profitability (Ng, 1977; Hew et al., 1973; Foster & Goh, 1977;Foster, 1982; Foster et al., 1986 ).Generally, the fertilizers used in oil palm cultivation in Malaysia can be grouped into five broad categories,which are, ‘straights’, mixtures, compounds, slow and/or controlled release, and organic and/or by-productfertilizers (Tang et al., 1999 ). The first three are the most common groups of fertilizers used by theplantations. In mature palms, straight fertilizers provide the bulk of the four macronutrients required for oilpalms i.e. nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K) and magnesium (Mg). Compound fertilizers are usedmainly in immature palms while mixtures are preferred where savings in application rounds may be madee.g. in sandy soil areas or to save on costs of compound fertilizers.The common sources of nitrogen being used in this country are ammonium sulfate (21% N), ammoniumnitrate (26% N), ammonium chloride (25% N) and urea (46% N). Trials have shown little difference in FFByield responses to them except for urea, which produced comparable results only under adequate moistureconditions and on clay soils ( Hew & Tam, 1971; Ng, 1977; Sinasamy et al., 1982; Tarmizi et al., 1993 ).Urea is not recommended generally because of its high N volatilization and expected high variability in Nuptake. Generally, the choice of N fertilizers is primarily determined by the effective unit N cost. In recentyears, the cheapest N sources for oil palm in Malaysia have been ammonium chloride and ammonium nitratebut problems with caking of fine crystalline ammonium chloride have caused it to fall out of favour.The main sources of phosphorus are phosphate rock, superphosphate and diammonium phosphate (DAP).The water soluble superphosphate P source is commonly applied to palms at the immature stage in the formof compound fertilizers. However, by far the largest usage is as phosphate rocks which are effective on ouracid soils and more economical for use in mature palms. In this region, the oil palm is one such crop wherephosphate rock has been extensively used as a source of P. The same goes for rubber and cocoa. Thevarious phosphate rocks in current use vary widely in physical, chemical, mineralogical and reactivitycharacteristics. For application in oil palm, phosphate rocks are finely ground to improve their solubility butthere are also some P sources which show higher ‘reactivity’ even in the ungrounded form e.g. NorthCarolina Rock Phosphate, Tunisian Rock Phosphate. These ‘reactive’ rocks generally come with lower P2O5content which to the producer is not the ideal source for phosphoric acid production and there is thus greatpotential to ship such rocks for use in this region.The choice of K fertilizers is usually limited to Muriate of Potash (MoP) which is mainly obtained fromCanada, USA, Russia and Jordan. The grades and quality from the various sources are fairly standard.Potassium nitrate and potassium sulfate are used only in the compound form for the nursery stage seedlings.The most common sources of Mg fertilizer used in Malaysia are kieserite and ground magnesium limestone(GML). The latter is available locally, and effective and cheap when used under the correct agronomicconditions (Goh et al., 1998). A new source of magnesium, synthetic magnesium sulfate, has also made itspresence in the Malaysian market. This material is obtained by treating dolomite or magnesite with industrialsulfuric acids. The effectiveness of this new material on oil palm is currently being investigated (Tang et al.,1999) but it has already been widely used based on its water soluble Mg content.Fertilizer mixtures, produced by simple physical mixing of the straight fertilizers, have the advantage of beingprepared according to specified ratios to suit particular situations as needed. This enables the majormacronutrients to be applied together at lower cost and with fewer application rounds.Most, if not all, of the compound fertilizers used by plantation companies in Malaysia are in granulated form.It is common knowledge that the cost of compound fertilizer is higher than the three straight fertilizerssupplying the equivalent quantity of nutrients. Hence, compound fertilizers usage in plantation companies islimited to the nursery and young, immature oil palm areas.Boron is the only micronutrient of general significance to oil palm to date, and the sources are mainly fromthe various forms of sodium borate (Na2B4O7.xH2O). The other micronutrients, principally copper and zincare used mainly in peat or very sandy areas and are normally applied in the form of their sulfate saltsrespectively. Iron and manganese salts are applied in isolated cases only.Fertilizer Procurement System by Large Plantation OrganizationsThe purchasing system of the large plantation organizations in Malaysia can be broadly categorized intothree types; open tender, government central purchase, and close quote system.

 

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Pollination Beetle and control

The pest causes severe damage to emerging fronds and spindle. The adult beetle feeds on the softer tissue of the rachis, resulting in snapping off of the fronds and spears at the feeding sites. Field sanitation and elimination of breeding sites are essential components of the pest management operation. This pest can be suppressed by using the virus Baculovirus oryctes.

 

 

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Pest and diseases control

Tropical climates with ample sunshine, heat and moisture mean that weeds thrive and may compete with crops for space, water and nutrients, and shade the crop plants, especially when they are young. A large number of annual and perennial weeds infest oil palm plantations. However, if effectively managed, with ‘noxious’ species being removed, many weeds have longer term benefits.A number of insects are potentially damaging to oil palm in various parts of the world including: palm weevils (Rhynchophorus spp.), rhinoceros beetles (Oryctes spp.), weevils (Strategus aloeus, Temnoschoita quadripustulata), leaf-miners (Coelaenomenodera elaeidis, Hispolepis elaeidis, Alurunus humeralis), slug caterpillar (Parasa viridissima), nettle caterpillar (Setora nitens) and bagworms (Cremastophysche pendula, Mahasena corbetti, Metisa plana).Oil palm diseases include: blasts (Pythium splendens, Rhizoctonia lamellifera), freckle (Cercospora elaeidis), anthracnose (Botryodiplodia palmarum, Melanconium elaeidis, Glomerella cingulata), seedling blight (Curvularia eragrostidis), yellow patch and vascular wilt (Fusarium oxysporum), basal trunk rot (Ceratocystis paradoxa, Ganoderma spp., Armillaria mellea); crown disease and fruit rot (Marasmius palmivorus). Spear (bud) rot is caused by the bacterium Erwinia spp., which has been devastating in Central Africa.Other pests include soil nematodes (e.g. Aphelenchus avenae, Helicotylenchus spp., Meloidogyne spp.) which damage roots; and rodents which can eat seedlings and fruit.Integrated pest managementA sustainable approach to crop production relies on protecting the crop by an integrated system of pest management (IPM). There are many examples of how managing species other than the crop, rather than attempting to eliminate them, has benefits in oil palm. For example:Elaeidobius kamerunicus, a weevil introduced into South East Asia in the 1970’s eliminated the need for costly and inefficient hand pollinating, resulting in a sharp increase in oil yieldsOwls are encouraged for rodent controlLeaving less competitive species of weeds provides a habitat for predators of insect pests and helps to prevent soil erosion.Weed management“Paraquat has always given good value, with fast and effective weed control, especially of difficult weeds like ferns, woody shrubs and volunteer oil palm seedlings, even in the rainy season. These days, it is important to use paraquat in Conservation Agriculture to prevent weed succession problems caused by glyphosate.”Professor Gembira Sinuraya, a weed scientist at North Sumatra University who also owns and manages an oil palm and rubber plantation and is involved with the Indonesian Weed Science Society.Paraquat effectively controls volunteer oil palmseedlings which grow as weeds from seeds in fallen fruit.Weed management plays a central role in IPM. Initially, plantation floors are cleared of vegetation, but are usually sown with legume cover crops. Circles around newly planted oil palms are kept weed-free to ensure the successful establishment of the crop. Paths are sprayed-out for access and as the oil palm canopy develops, the cover crop becomes shaded out. This allows a wide range of weed species to invade and broad spectrum non-selective herbicides are used to control these.Intensive use of one particular type of non-selective herbicide, notably glyphosate, has led to changes in plantation weed flora (‘weed succession’) as species more tolerant to that mode of action become more dominant. ‘Soft’ weeds which are easily controlled, and can have some benefits such as helping to minimise soil erosion, are replaced by re-invasion of cleared land by more aggressive ‘noxious’ weeds which reduce crop yields. Apart from having a virtually unique mode of action (shared only by its sister, the desiccant diquat), paraquat only removes the top growth of well established weeds, allowing them to re-grow after 1-2 months. In this way, soft weeds can be controlled but not eliminated.Examples of soft weeds are the prostrate grasses Axonopus spp., Digitaria spp., Ottochloa spp. and Paspalum spp. A controlled presence of soft weeds maintains the balance of the weed flora and prevents weed succession by noxious species simply because bare ground for them to colonise is less available.Noxious weeds include the perennial grass Imperata cylindrica, and the creeping broad-leaved weed Mikania micrantha which aggressively compete with the crop for nutrients and moisture. Other noxious weeds affect spray operations, fertilizer application and harvesting because of the presence of thorns (Mimosa spp.) or dense coverage (Asystasia spp., Ischaemum spp., Pennisetum spp. and Stenochlaena spp.). The ferns Dicranopteris linearis, Lygodium flexuosum and Stenochloena palastris are found in mature shaded areas obstructing harvest. Paraquat is specifically recommended for managing ferns.Extensive field trials and practical experience have shown the advantages of using an integrated approach to weed management by, for example, using two spray rounds of paraquat products followed by one of glyphosate (Lam et al, 1993, Lim et al, 1996, Quah et al, 1997). This program keeps a controlled presence of soft weeds and removes noxious weeds.

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Vertebrate animal

Once oil palm has replaced the immense variety of hundreds of species of trees, vines, shrubs, mosses, and other plants found on every acre of lowland rainforest, most animals can no longer live there. An oil palm plantation is, in effect, a "biological desert." As an industrial plantation crop, oil palm is grown as a monoculture. Most of the other plants found are low-growing ground cover. Without the rainforest's plenteous variety of fruits, nuts, leaves, roots, nectar, bark, shoots, and other plant materials to eat, most animals cannot survive. And, without plenty of plant-eating prey animals such as deer to hunt, carnivores such as tigers cannot survive either. The plantations provide habitat for only 20 percent or less of the previously resident mammals, reptiles, and birds Endangered Rainforest MammalsThe loss of rainforest habitat will swiftly and inevitably lead to the complete disappearance of many unique mammal species. This section presents five animals as examples of the devastation to come: the Sumatran tiger, Sumatran and Bornean orangutans, Asian elephant, and Sumatran rhinoceros. Each of those species is endangered according to the IUCN Red List Moreover, the three eponymous Sumatran species are considered critically endangered - a status largely due to loss of habitat (see figure 5 here below).


Each of the five species discussed here requires connected areas of rainforest to survive. They once flourished in the areas where forests have since been cleared for oil palm - especially the islands of Borneo and Sumatra. On those two islands, 60 percent of rainforest was lost just between 1985 and 1997. The Sumatran orangutan, Bornean orangutan, and Sumatran tiger exist only on the islands of Sumatra or Borneo and nowhere else in the world. The Sumatran rhinoceros has remnant populations on both Sumatra and Borneo, with a small population in Peninsular Malaysia and a few other scattered remnants elsewhere. A significant number of the remaining Asian elephants occur in Sumatra and Borneo ; the species is also found in continental Asian countries.
Sumatran tiger . The Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae) is one of only five remaining tiger subspecies, reduced from eight by recent extinctions. Sumatran tigers live in rainforest. Adults of both sexes are mainly solitary, except for females with cubs. An adult tiger has its own wide-ranging home territory, about 20 to 30 square miles for a female tiger ; a male tiger's home range may be even larger because his overlaps the ranges of several females.
Tigers feed on prey animals that weigh about 100 to 450 pounds, such as deer and wild pigs, which also live in the rainforest. A single adult tiger eats 40 pounds of meat at a sitting and must kill about 75 large prey a year to survive. To support a tiger population, an area of rainforest habitat must be big enough to support a sufficient population of large prey animals. Population density of Sumatran tigers thus depends on availability of prey. Considering their expansive home ranges, 2,000 to 3,000 square miles of rainforest might be needed for a subpopulation of about 100 tigers. A number of subpopulations, each large enough to be genetically healthy, would be needed to rescue the species from the threat of extinction.


Elephant Killing in Sumatra

In November 2004, six wild elephants were poisoned to death in Sumatra after they encroached on an oil palm plantation. The killing of elephants, as well as of endangered tigers, is not unusual on the island, where illegal logging and farming have shrunk those and other animals' natural habitat and increased their contact with humans . The elephants were found dead in Kepenuhan Tengah, a village in Rokan Hulu, Riau. Five were simply poisoned; the sixth was burned after being poisoned. The corpses were found south of the Libo Forest Block, where the concessions of PT Manday Abadi, PT Rokan Permai Timber, and PT Rokan Timber Corporation operate. Workers on an oil palm plantation admitted sickening the elephants with rat poison. According to the Associated Press story in the Jakarta Post, one worker said, "The wild elephants have become a big problem for us and we had no other choice than to poison them so we could secure the plantation." The animals are believed to be from the already critically small elephant group in Riau, the Rambah Hilir elephant group, whose population of 30 to 35 elephants in 2003 is significantly reduced from its level of 100 to 200 in 1995.

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Plant Integration in palm

Protein Sources

Sources of protein for animal feeds are many and varied, with considerable opportunities for further diversification and substitutions. More research is required on alternative sources before many of the opportunities can be exploited in practice.
Plant Protein Sources

Soybean

Soybean remains the most important and preferred source of high quality vegetable protein for animal feed manufacture. Soybean meal, which is the by-product of oil extraction, has a high crude protein content of 44 to 50 percent and a balanced amino acid composition, complementary to maize meal for feed formulation. A high level of inclusion (30-40 percent) is used in high performance monogastric diets.

A measure of success of this crop is the increase in production of 50 to 60 percent between 1985 and 2000, with most grown in the United States, Brazil and Argentina. Over half of the crop is now, however, genetically modified (GM) mainly for herbicide tolerance. The potential of soybeans for further nutritional quality enhancement was emphasized by Hard and there are prospects for considerable feed benefits, assuming acceptance of GM sources in the marketplace. Currently, Argentina and Brazil are reported to export 60 percent of their production and the USA about 16 percent. The market for non-GM soya seems to be growing and may be increasingly important in the future.

Comments by Hard and others emphasized the potential of soybeans for continuing improvement and possibly wider adaptation to different growing conditions. Chadd and colleagues mentioned the potential of forage soybeans in a European context, in locations where grain soybeans cannot (at present) be economically produced. Further development and exploitation of soybean genetics may prove the most appropriate strategy in some regions, rather than developing other alternative plant protein sources.

In the European Union soybean dominates the protein supply for animal feed and the ban on meat and bone meal has resulted in further imports, reportedly of up to 1.5 million t in 2001.

Other oil meal crops

There are many different potential oil crops in addition to soybean, each with strengths and weaknesses for protein meal supply. Local adaptation to growing conditions and local availability provide distinct advantages for feed production in many developing countries. A continuous supply of protein meal of known quality can be made available, as is the case with palm kernel cake, the by-product of oil palm production (e.g. in Malaysia and Indonesia).

According to Speedy, prospects continue to be good for future oil meal crop production. Global projections show increasing demands for vegetable oils of 2.1 percent per annum for the next 20 years, and a significant increase in demand for oil meals and cakes. Predictions of future land use suggest that the area of oil crops will increase substantially in some developing countries. Oil palm, sunflower and oilseed rape, in addition to soybeans, will dominate and provide much of the future increase. Currently, the major net exporters in the developing world are Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Brazil and Argentina, but more oil and protein meal may be retained in future years for their own domestic use.

Oilseed rape is grown extensively in temperate regions (e.g., in Canada and the European Union) and provides good protein meal. Although glucosinolates are present and the lysine content is lower than in soybean, it provides a much higher proportion of sulphur-containing amino acids (cysteine and methionine). Glucosinolates can be removed by breeding and GM types of oilseed rape have been developed. The crop is considered to have a lot of future potential, both for increasing oil content and modifying protein composition.

Chadd and colleagues also recommend more studies on the less well known and little grown oil crops such as niger and jojoba, which reportedly have a high crude protein in the extracted cake.
To what extent such crops as oil palm, coconut, sunflower, sesame, crambe or cotton (seed) can be utilized for meal inclusion in animal feeds depends to a large extent on what price the processor is able to obtain for the extracted oil. With the exception of soybean, the demand for these particular meals is markedly influenced by their vegetable oil price.

This is important for the profitability of intensive livestock enterprises such as poultry production, working on low margins. Protein-rich meal inclusion from oilseed crops currently remains the key; however, to high quality feed supply for intensive enterprise performance.

Legumes

Legumes are a traditional source of plant proteins for animal feed and their production can provide a range of benefits both on farms and for feed manufacturers. The exploitation of soybean is a classic example of successful development and use. Peas, beans and lupins are exploited as grain crops in temperate farming systems and their production for home-grown protein supply is encouraged (and supported) in the European Union to reduce dependency on imported proteins. Each has strengths and weaknesses for quality protein provision. Lupins, for example, can yield high levels of crude protein but produce grain which is often low in lysine and sulphur-containing amino acids.

Chadd and colleagues described work in the tropics and sub-tropics on alternative, better adapted protein sources and reported the benefits of chickpea, cowpea and mungbean for incorporation in poultry diets. The successful exploitation of tropical tree legumes for successful ruminant feeding, in both warmer parts of Australia and sub-Saharan Africa, was also mentioned.

The considerable potential of a wide range of leguminous plants for forage use was highlighted for both temperate and tropical agriculture. The need for much more research, however, was emphasized to provide for more successful practical exploitation. The significance of lucerne, the most widely grown forage, and red clover has been highlighted.

The value of a wide range of tropical legumes was mentioned, in particular Centrosema spp., Stylosanthes spp. and Leucaena spp., and the potential of other tree legume sources is being recognized. Leucaena leucocephala has been most widely commercialized, and can be hedge-cropped both mechanically and manually, or grazed in situ. It is adapted to a wide range of soil and climatic conditions. The presence of mimosine, a toxic amino acid, however, limits its use in non-ruminant diets.

More research is required to determine the value of many of these legumes for the animal feed industry. More agronomic studies are also required to improve performance, combined with economic analyses of the unit costs of the resultant protein. Particular attention will need to be given to protein quality, in addition to protein yield.

Further studies will also need to be undertaken with many of these potential legume sources for anti-nutritional factors and toxins. These are dealt with during processing by such practices as de-hulling, heating or solvent extraction.

Bactris gasipaesKunth

Synonymy: Guilielma gasipaes
Distribution: Amazonian Brazil, Colombia, Peru, and Central America
Common names: Peach palm, pejibaye, chonta, pupunha
Conservation status: Unknown in wild; abundant in cultivation

As with many types of fruit native to the Amazon, consumption was restricted to a relatively small geographical area because of the farming practices of the native Indians. Pupunha (Bactris gasipaes) is a multi-stemmed palm tree that can reach up to 20 meters (65 feet) in height. When the tree is an adult, 10 to 15 secondary stems develop, guaranteeing the regeneration of the plant. While not all of these stems produce fruit, they are all used to extract the delicious heart of palm. In the wild, the pupunha bears fruit in large bunches in approximately five years, but this time can be reduced by half under managed growing conditions. The male flowers fall after releasing pollen, while the female flower develops into a small red, yellow or orange fruit, measuring around 5 cm (2 inches) in diameter. The fruit is rich in vitamin A, and has a high protein and starch value. It can be eaten after being cooked in boiling water, but can also be used to produce oil and flour. Animal feed is produced with the remaining parts of the tree and fruit. In the 1970's the pupunha became a focus for research and for intensive farming in various regions of Brazil. In the state of Bahia, the first Brazilian state to commercially cultivate the fruit, the harvesting of the pupunha takes place from November to March each year. This palm is also cultivated throughout much of the rest of South and Central America, and is actually unknown in the wild.

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